Today, the campers learned all about war in Ancient Egypt. They started out by discussing why countries might go to war. Conquest, conflict, demonstrations of power, disagreements, and the desire to enslave POWs were all reasons that the campers came up with together.
Egypt was involved in many wars during its time as an ancient kingdom. It won most of them, but a few key defeats brought the nation down from its earlier glory. Even if we did not have military records from Ancient Egypt, we could still infer that the country was a powerful force in its day because of all the Egyptian artifacts we have. Civilizations that lose often don’t leave many artifacts behind.
The Ancient Egyptian military, like most militaries, was divided into ranks, with common soldiers on the bottom, generals on the top, and different kinds of officer in between. Most common soldiers had been farmers before being called to action. The job of a soldier was not an easy one. They had to march an average of 15 miles every day. This was required of them even though they did not have a large supply of food and water, so they had to be in excellent shape in order to survive long walks in harsh, hot, desert climates.
In addition to the inequalities put into place by the rank system, the Ancient Egyptian military was further split up into divisions of different sizes. Within one of the smallest divisions, the most experienced soldiers were put up in front so they could deal a great amount of damage at the beginning of a battle. New recruits, however, were positioned in the back of a division, allowing them to survive long enough to gain experience. In addition to the infantry, chariots were also a prominent part of the Ancient Egyptian military. Two chariots, each carrying a driver and an archer, rode into battle in front of each division. Chariots were not invented in Egypt, however. They imported the technology from around the area that is now known as Syria.
Common weapons used by Egyptian soldiers were bronze spears and wooden shields. Ancient Egypt is considered a Bronze Age civilization, although they did continue using stone in some of their tools. Arrowheads, for example, could be made of either bronze or stone. Axes and swords were also used.
The people of Ancient Egypt, like many ancient peoples, were very religious. They named their military divisions after gods. Lions, an animal familiar to the Egyptians due to their African homeland, were characterized as loyal, powerful, brave, fierce, and stealthy animals. Therefore, it’s not surprising that Sekhmet, the daughter of Ra and goddess of pestilence, war, death (but not famine), and the scorching desert sun, was often depicted with the head of a lioness. Soldiers would carry statues of Sekhmet with them into battle in hopes that the goddess would bring them success. Priests that traveled with the military would pray to her, as the goddess of pestilence, to keep soldiers healthy. In those days, and even up until the time of the American Civil War, disease killed more soldiers than actual battles.
A rather belligerent people, the Ancient Egyptians weren’t satisfied with a lone leonine deity specializing in warfare. There were many gods of war among the massive Egyptian pantheon. Horus, son of Osiris and Isis, was the god of war, protection, vengeance, and the sky. He also represented the divine power of the pharaoh. Sobek, a crocodile-headed god, had power over the army, the military in general, and soldiers. Sobek was also one of the multitude of Nile gods. The crocodile god was capricious, often terminally so. If prayed to in the right way, he would fiercely protect soldiers, but if he was upset, he could strike down entire divisions. Set, traitorous brother and murderer of Osiris, was the god of disorder, chaos, the desert, and desert animals, including cobras, scorpions, hyenas, jackals, and asps. Set also had control over the terrifying monsters and demons of Egyptian mythology. Although an evil god by some accounts, Set was a good ally to have in times of war. Enemy forces usually don’t prepare for legions of Duat demons.
Aside from major gods like Sekhmet, Horus, Sobek, and Set, there were minor war gods as well. Menhit was another lion-headed goddess, although nowhere as popular as Sekhmet. She was one of the folk gods, worshiped mostly by the common people instead of by mainstream priests in huge temples. Menhit was known as “she who massacres”, and was famous for shooting a barrage of flaming arrows at her enemies. Neith, another folk goddess, had power over war and the hunt, two things which were closely connected in Ancient Egypt. Soldiers asked her to bless their weapons, and to protect them if they died in battle. Egyptians believed that soldiers who died in battle were susceptible to attacks from the demons and gods of their enemies at the time, and that only Neith could save them. If I were an ancient wartime casualty, I’d personally prefer the Norse myth of the idyllic Valhalla to this nightmarish fate. Finally, Anhur was another minor war god, who had heavenly jurisdiction over the army. One of his epithets was the “slayer of enemies”. Most of these war gods were often depicted with scepters.
Here at the Penn Museum, we are extremely lucky to have artifacts on display from the tomb of the pharaoh Merenptah, including a sphinx. Merenptah was the thirteenth son of Ramses II, and one of his generals. Although the first son, not the thirteenth, would usually succeed the father, Ramses II lived for so long (over 90 years!) that his first twelve sons died before him! In one relief we have here at the museum, Merenptah is depicted raising a mace over his head, preparing to bring it down onto the heads of his enemies, smiting them. Egyptian mace heads could either be made out of stone or metal. Unlike medieval European maces, however, Egyptian maces were not equipped with spikes.
Throughout Ancient Egypt’s long history, the country had many enemies. The Nubians, a people living along a part of the Nile further south than Egypt in what is now Sudan, often came into conflict with their northern neighbors. Their part of the Nile was important for trade, so Egypt often invaded them, although they only conquered a few northern parts of Nubia until around the 1500s BC. Around that time, Egyptians decided they were tired of small Nubian rebellions, and conquered the entire country. Eventually, the southerners got their revenge when a Nubian group known as the Kushites took over Egypt in the 8th century BC. The Canaanites, who occupied what is now Israel and Palestine, were also a target for Egyptian conquest and aggression. Because of their position on the Levant, also known as the Eastern Mediterranean Coast, Canaan had the ability to regulate trade between Egypt and the rest of the Middle East. It isn’t hard to see why the Egyptians weren’t particularly fond of them. The Hittites, an Anatolian Indo-European people, were a prominent enemy of the Egyptians, especially since they had a successful empire of their own. They fought with the Egyptians repeatedly for control of land in the Middle East. In 1275 BC, the most famous battle between the two empires took place. Lasting for two days, the Battle of Kadesh had no clear winner. Despite this, Ramses II went back to Egypt and claimed to have won. The Hittite king did something similar after his retreat.
The Hyksos were another enemy of Egypt. They were outsiders, although their specific homeland, while most likely in Western Asia, is not known. They introduced chariots to Egypt when they conquered the kingdom in the 15th century BC. The eventual Egyptian defeat of the Hyksos marked the beginning of the New Kingdom, widely thought of as Egypt’s golden age. The Sea People, a diverse confederation of Eastern Mediterranean rogues, also took control of Egypt for a time. Although they are famous for their battles with Egypt, they also fought against Minoans, Mycenaean, Trojans, and Hittites. When not defending themselves against the seafarers, Egypt would sometimes employ them as mercenaries. Finally, the Assyrians, whose empire also incorporated the Babylonians, the Canaanites, and the Hittites, took control of Egypt in the 7th century BC. They came from Mesopotamia, the area around modern Iraq, and expelled the Nubian Kushites who ruled Egypt at the time. After the Assyrians, the Persians conquered Egypt, and then the Greeks, and then the Romans, and then various Western European powers. Only relatively recently has Egypt regained its independence.
After this incredibly educational gallery talk, the campers were given paper and were asked to write about or draw a time in their life when they felt they were struggling, if they were comfortable doing so. They then compared their struggles to the struggles of war.
Next, the campers had snack before embarking on their weekly scavenger hunt. Everyone did very well, and had a lot of fun exploring the museum.
Lunch was next on the itinerary, followed by an hour of gaga outside. The day ended with more showcase preparations, although not before a wonderful presentation by Dr. Stephen R. Phillips, archaeologist, administrator, and mummy expert. Dr. Phillips had been on many excavations to Egypt, but in 2011, he offered to take a group of his friends and neighbors there on a tour. However, that was around the time of the Egyptian Revolution, part of the Arab Spring, which overthrew military dictator Hosni Mubarak. However, the month after the end of the revolution, Dr. Phillips and his group decided to make the trip, despite warnings from the mainstream media. They started out in Cairo, where they saw remnants of many religions from throughout Egypt’s rich history, namely mosques, churches, and synagogues. They then crossed the Nile to visit Giza, home of the Great Sphinx and the three most famous pyramids in Egypt. The modern world of the city of Giza comes right up to the ancient graveyard. In fact, the sphinx has a great view of a Pizza Hut right across the street. Dr. Phillips was very familiar with the area, having recently participated in a dig behind the pyramids. Part of his job is using skeletal remains to uncover each corpse’s personal history. He can tell how old a person was at the time of their death, and their sex, all based on their skeleton. Next, the group moved on to Saqqara, where they visited a step pyramid even older than the pyramids at Giza. After that, on to Memphis. Once an important Egyptian city, most of modern Memphis is essentially an open air museum. Luxor, known in antiquity as Thebes, was the group’s next destination. From the city, they took a cruise along the Nile. They left the boat on the opposite bank, and stepped into the famous Valley of the Kings. The tomb of King Tutankhamun was not hard to find. Tourists are even allowed inside of Howard Carter’s legendary discovery. From there, they returned to Luxor to visit the Karnak Temple. In modern times, tourists can enter the most holy, inner sanctuaries of Ancient Egyptian temples. They also saw the Aswan Dam and Lake Nasser, along with the temple of Ramses II and the temple of his (most prominent) wife, Nefertari. Giving us an entirely different look at Egypt from the one given to us by mainstream media, Dr. Phillips described post-revolutionary Egypt as a peaceful place full of friendly, welcoming people who love to learn more about foreign cultures. The horror stories broadcast in the west had a disastrous impact on Egyptian tourism. Because of that, Dr. Phillips and his tour group were lucky enough to quite often be the only people visiting most of these breathtaking sites displaying the proud history and heritage of not only Egypt, but the entire world. He recommends everyone travel to Egypt at least once in their lifetimes, and I, for one, definitely plan on taking his advice.
Then, the yellow and red group walked to the upper Egyptian gallery where many statues, mummies, and other ancient Egyptian artifacts were on display. The campers participated in a scavenger hunt throughout the exhibit as they tried to decipher the clues and then find the object. Some objects included a portion of the Egyptian book of the dead, a death mask, and a statue. After being stumped on the very first question, the campers eventually figured it out and cleverly figured out the rest. At the conclusion of the hunt, the campers returned to the group dining area and ate a snack. Then, the yellow and red groups learned how to play the ancient Egyptian board game Senet. Senet is thought to be one of the earliest board games ever made, if not the first. The campers then got into pairs and played against each other. After the campers had lunch, all of the groups walked to the Highline field for some games. When the campers returned, they started to work on their showcase for Friday. For more information about that, however, you will have to come and see!
Then the green and blue groups worked to create an original holiday and explain its origin through a myth. The yellow and red groups made paper bag puppets that they could use to act out their own myths. After lunch, campers ventured to Highline field for some outdoor activities. The campers then engaged in another groovy art project that encouraged them to come up with the most creative original song or rap about mythology. The volunteers created and distributed awards to the campers to congratulate them on a job well done.
Anthropologists in the Making Summer Camp 